Four subscales were used: External social regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. Values larger than 0. Before testing the research model presented in Figure 1 , a series of confirmatory factor analyses was conducted for the measurement model employed in this study cf.
Table 1. For each study wave, four models were tested. The first was the independence model a , assuming that all 11 concepts included in this study workaholism; intrinsic, external social, introjected and identified regulation; vigor, dedication and absorption; and autonomy, competence and relatedness satisfaction were statistically independent.
The single-factor model b assumed that all 11 concepts were observed indicators of a single underlying dimension. Finally, model d is identical to model c , but assumes that all seven study concepts are related.
Table 1 shows that models a and c — that assumed that the study variables were largely or wholly unrelated — did not fit the data at both study waves.
Single-factor model b improves strongly on these two models, but its fit was far from acceptable for both study waves. Conversely, model d , the model proposed for this study, fitted the data reasonably well across both study waves, with only RMSEA and TLI not meeting their cutoff values at Time 1. Subsequent measurement invariance tests indicated that model d accounted reasonably well for the data at both study waves.
Thus, work engagement and need satisfaction were considered as latent variables, with their factor structure being invariant across both study waves. Our research model Figure 1 is a mediation model, but since we have only two waves of data available this model could not be tested in full using the present two-wave study design. Therefore, we used the two-step procedure recommended by Cole and Maxwell to obtain an approximation of the mediation process using two-wave data.
Cole and Maxwell recommend two subsequent longitudinal tests: 1 investigating the causal longitudinal relationships between the predictor A i. If predictor A longitudinally affects mediator B and if mediator B longitudinally affects outcome C, it is plausible that the association between A and C is mediated by B, and an indication of the magnitude of the mediation effect can be obtained by multiplying the longitudinal effect of A on B by the longitudinal effect of B on C Cole and Maxwell, By examining the hypothesized relations in two steps, we also took into account the ratio of the number of participants to the number of free parameters i.
First, we examined the longitudinal relations between need satisfaction and the different types of motivation Step 1; see Figure 1. Second, we examined the longitudinal relations among the different types of motivation and the two types of heavy work investment in the present study: workaholism and work engagement Step 2.
In the stability model , each factor as measured at Time 1 predicted that same factor as measured at Time 2. For example, need satisfaction at Time 1 predicted need satisfaction at Time 2, external regulation at Time 1 predicted external regulation at Time 2, et cetera step 1.
In the causality model , the stability model was extended with cross-lagged paths between need satisfaction at Time 1 and the different types of motivation at Time 2 step 1 , and with cross-lagged paths between the different types of motivation at Time 1 and the two types of heavy work investment at Time 2 step 2. In the reversed causality model , the stability model was extended with cross-lagged paths in the opposite direction, i.
Lastly, in the reciprocal model , the cross-lagged paths of the causality model and the reversed causality model were added to the stability model. The cross-lagged paths in the causality model, the reversed causality model, and the reciprocal model were relevant to the hypotheses. Hakanen et al. In addition, following the recommendations of Pitts et al. Table 2. Table 3 shows the fit indices for the study models. The causality model revealed that all paths from need satisfaction Time 1 to modes of motivational regulation Time 2 were significant, except for that of identified regulation 0.
Conversely, no paths from motivational regulation Time 1 to need satisfaction Time 2 were significant; for external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic motivational regulation these path coefficients were 0. The results of the reciprocal model agree completely with the combined results of the causality and reversed causal models; all path coefficients from need satisfaction Time 1 to motivational regulation Time 2 are significant again, with the exception of the effect of T1 need satisfaction on T2 identified regulation , whereas all reversed causal paths were non-significant.
Since the causality model was more parsimonious and essentially contained the same information in terms of significant paths, the reciprocal model was rejected in favor of the causality model. Subsequently non-significant paths were removed from the causality model for three reasons cf. McCoach, First, including them would lead to a relatively complicated, difficult-to-interpret and non-parsimonious model. Second, deleting non-significant effects increases the number of degrees of freedom for the model test and, thus, increases statistical power.
Third, in structural equation modeling parameter estimates are dependent on the model that is estimated, i. Including non-significant parameter estimates may thus affect and even bias the other parameter estimates.
Figure 2 presents the significant effects of need satisfaction on different types of motivation. For clarity, this figure does not include the correlations between the error terms of the indicator variables of need satisfaction as measured at Time 1 and Time 2 Pitts et al. Figure 2. Final SEM model: relations between need satisfaction and motivation the casuality model, model M1. Hypothesis 1a stated that need satisfaction would have a negative effect on external regulation.
Furthermore, Hypotheses 1b—1d proposed that need satisfaction would have a positive effect on introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation, respectively. Further, need satisfaction at Time 1 did not significantly predict identified regulation at Time 2 Hypothesis 1c rejected.
The causality model revealed that only the path coefficients from identified regulation to workaholism 0. The remaining paths from introjected regulation and intrinsic motivation to workaholism 0. All hypothesized reversed causal paths were significant, except for the path linking identified regulation to workaholism 0. The path coefficients for workaholism impacting on introjected regulation and intrinsic motivation were 0.
The results of the reciprocal model agree almost completely with the combined results of the causality and reversed causal models; only the paths from T1 intrinsic motivation to T2 work engagement and from T1 identified regulation to T2 workaholism were non-significant. Figure 3 presents the final model. Again, the correlations between the error terms of the indicator variables of the latent variables in this figure Time 1 and Time 2 work engagement were omitted for clarity.
Figure 3. Final SEM model: relations between motivation and heavy work investment the reversed casuality model, model M2. Regarding the associations between motivation and workaholism , Hypotheses 2a and 2b asserted that introjected regulation and identified regulation would have a positive effect on workaholism, respectively.
We found no significant relations between identified regulation and workaholism Hypothesis 2b rejected. As for the associations between motivation and work engagement , Hypotheses 3a and 3b proposed that intrinsic motivation and identified regulation would affect work engagement positively.
We found significant associations between these two kinds of motivation and work engagement. Therefore, we conducted an additional series of structural equation analyses, comparing a stability model, a causality model, a reversed causality model and a reciprocal model for the longitudinal associations among need satisfaction and both types of heavy work investment.
These findings suggest that need satisfaction is not an antecedent of engagement or workaholism. Broadly speaking, different types of motivation were expected to affect workaholism and work engagement across time.
However, Figure 3 shows that — contrary to our hypotheses — both need satisfaction and heavy work investment affect motivation over time. To examine the unique contributions of these predictors, an additional model with cross-lagged effects of need satisfaction and the two types of heavy work investment at Time 1 on the different types of motivation at Time 2 was examined, controlling for the stability of these different types of motivation.
Thus, workaholism and work engagement as measured at T1 accounted for a significant part of the variance in at least some of the motivational variables at T2, even after controlling for Time 1 need satisfaction, and the stabilities of the motivational variables.
The present study is among the first to study work motivation and heavy work investment longitudinally. Drawing on Deci and Ryan self-determination theory SDT , this study examined how need satisfaction affects work motivation and how work motivation affects workaholism and work engagement across time. Although our findings are partly in line with previous theorizing and research Deci et al. First, the current study showed that need satisfaction forestalls external regulation and introjected regulation, but promotes intrinsic motivation across time.
The extent to which the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied seems to have no effect on identified regulation. These findings might suggest that employees who struggle with unsatisfied needs become more motivated by threats of punishments or material and social rewards external regulation , and by partially internalized external standards of self-worth and social approval introjected regulation.
They experience a desire to be in control, to master their environment, and to feel connected with others Deci and Ryan, and their work compensates unmet needs Mageau et al. As a consequence, they are hindered in acting in line with their personal values and interests Deci et al. Since external standards and partially adopted external standards might conflict with what employees personally prefer, they might feel pressured to work Ryan and Deci, This is in line with Bartolomew et al.
In contrast, employees with fulfilled needs are able do what they find interesting and enjoyable intrinsic motivation. They will engage in their work for its own sake with a full sense of volition Deci and Vansteenkiste, This type of behavior embodies the growth-oriented tendency of human beings, and as a result these employees will flourish.
Therefore, the present findings underline the necessity of fulfilled innate psychological needs for optimal work motivation. Second, the present study unexpectedly showed that workaholism promotes introjected regulation and reduces intrinsic motivation across time, rather than that these types of motivation regulation predicted workaholism.
Apparently, workaholic employees become more motivated by partially internalized external standards of self-worth and social approval introjected regulation. They are driven to demonstrate their competencies and to avoid failure in order to achieve feelings of self-worth, like pride, and to avoid feelings of shame, guilt, and worthlessness Ryan and Deci, Since this type of motivation is accompanied by an internal pressure to behave in particular ways, employees will be hindered in pursuing goals that fit their genuine ideals and interests Ryan et al.
In other words, their intrinsic motivation and, thus, their growth-oriented nature will be undermined. Consistent with this reasoning, the present study revealed a negative effect of workaholism on intrinsic motivation, suggesting that over time, employees who work excessively and compulsively will find their work less interesting and enjoyable than others, possibly due to the depletion of resources resulting from high effort expenditure.
Third, the present study showed that work engagement leads to identified regulation and intrinsic motivation across time. Engaged employees become more motivated by the underlying value of their work identified regulation , and the pleasure and satisfaction that they derive from their work intrinsic motivation. Like workaholic employees, engaged employees may become more extrinsically motivated across time.
While workaholics may adopt external standards of self-worth and social approval which in turn regulate their motivation introjection , engaged employees will recognize the underlying value of their work and will more fully internalize external standards identification. The external standards seem to become part of their identity Deci et al.
In addition, they will do their work because they find the work activities attractive. Finally, the findings presented here did not support our reasoning that the associations between need satisfaction and heavy work investment i. Although the expected effects of need satisfaction on motivation were largely supported step 1 in Figure 1 , workaholism and work engagement predicted motivation rather than that they were predicted by motivation step 2 in Figure 1. Since our post-hoc analyses showed that need satisfaction and heavy work investment were unrelated longitudinally, it appears that heavy work investment engagement and workaholism are predictors of motivation, next to need satisfaction.
Thus, engaged workers will be attracted to jobs providing good possibilities for identified and intrinsic motivation and workaholics will seek for jobs that offer opportunities for experiencing identified and introjected, rather than intrinsic motivation. This reasoning implies that workaholism and work engagement can be considered as relatively stable personal characteristics. There is indeed some evidence that major personality factors and heavy work investment are related Burke et al.
Furthermore, workaholism and work engagement may be associated with job crafting behavior. For example, engaged workers are likely to increase the resources present in their jobs Makikangas, which may in turn lead to more opportunities for experiencing intrinsic motivation. Interesting as these notions may be, at present they remain largely speculative and require more research before they can be accepted as a reasonable interpretation of the findings presented here.
Four main limitations of the present study must be discussed. First, this study is based on a convenience sample, and therefore we have only modest insight in the type of employees that participated in our study. As participants were recruited through a call on an internet site addressing career-related issues, our participants may well have been more interested in career-related information than the average Dutch employee, e.
This might have led to a restriction of the range of the scores on the study concepts, lack of statistical power, and conservatively estimated effect sizes. Second, the present study relied exclusively on self-report data. Using a single source might have exaggerated the associations between our study variables due to common method variance. However, Spector and Brannick convincingly show that self-report studies do not necessarily lead to inflated correlations and that the role of social desirability is often overestimated.
Furthermore, the strength of the associations displayed in Table 2 varies considerably, suggesting that the associations have not been influenced by a common underlying process that affects all these associations uniformly. This was confirmed by the confirmatory factor analyses presented in Table 1 , showing that at neither of the study waves a single latent factor accounted well for the associations among the observed variables.
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Create a personalised ads profile. Select personalised ads. Apply market research to generate audience insights. Measure content performance. Develop and improve products. List of Partners vendors. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something.
It is the driving force behind human actions. This video has been medically reviewed by John C. Motivation doesn't just refer to the factors that activate behaviors; it also involves the factors that direct and maintain these goal-directed actions though such motives are rarely directly observable.
As a result, we often have to infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on observable behaviors. What exactly lies behind the motivations for why we act? Psychologists have proposed different theories of motivation , including drive theory, instinct theory, and humanistic theory such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The reality is that there are many different forces that guide and direct our motivations.
Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic:. Sometimes, intrinsic motivation can diminish when extrinsic motivation is given—a process known as the overjustification effect. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance.
While motivation and emotion can be intricately linked, they are two fundamentally different things. Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal; in contrast, an emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as a feeling.
Emotion and motivation are linked in several ways: both influence behavior and can lead us to take action, and emotion itself can act as a motivator. For example, the emotion of fear can motivate a person to leave a stressful situation, while the emotion of happiness can motivate a person to be more productive on a project that reinforces that emotion.
Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Search for:. Introduction to Motivation. Defining Motivation Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal.
For an optimal experience visit our site on another browser. Share this —. Follow better. By Brianna Steinhilber. We all have motivation that ebbs and flows. Lacking Inspiration? Doing an activity to attain or avoid a separate outcome. An internal drive for success or sense of purpose.
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