However, the need to concentrate the viral stock in order to achieve measurable concentrations on surfaces resulted in a significant shift in the properties of the simulated saliva upon addition of the virus, specifically increases in the protein concentration and fractional solids. Thus, while the results of the present study demonstrate that suspension medium can significantly affect persistence under simulated sunlight, it is unclear if the viral concentrate diluted in simulated saliva is representative of contaminated saliva from an infected individual.
Additional testing, including compositional analysis of fluid samples from infected individuals, is needed to better understand the role of suspension medium in the environmental persistence of SARS-CoV Finally, while the simulated sunlight spectra utilized in the present study were meant to be representative of natural sunlight at different times of the year, a low level of irradiance was present below the UVB portion of the spectrum, between and nm, that is not present outdoors.
However, this study only looked at a single irradiance level and the associated doses were more than fold greater than those in the — nm region in the present study, making it difficult to determine if the low level of irradiance in the present study contributed to the measured inactivation rates. Beck et al [ 27 ] examined the effect of narrow bands of UV radiation ranging from nm up to nm on inactivation of MS2 phage, a single-stranded RNA virus.
The results of this study demonstrate that doses of UV in the —nm range equivalent to those in the present study would not be expected to result in significant inactivation of MS2, while doses of UVB equivalent to those in the present study would be expected to produce an approximately fold decrease in viral infectivity.
While this suggests that the low level of UV irradiance measured in the —nm range in the present study is not likely to have contributed significantly to the measured inactivation rate, additional studies examining the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 as a function of wavelength, and comparing inactivation rates measured with a solar simulator and under natural sunlight, potentially with a surrogate microorganism, would be informative.
The present study provides the first evidence that sunlight may rapidly inactivate SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces, suggesting that surface persistence, and subsequently exposure risk, may vary significantly between indoor and outdoor environments. However, in order to fully assess the risk of exposure in outdoor environments, information on the viral load present on surfaces, the transfer efficiency of virus from those surfaces upon contact, and the amount of virus needed to cause infection are also needed.
The authors thank the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for their expert technical guidance in development of the chamber and solar simulator utilized in this study. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of Department of Homeland Security DHS or the US Government. The DHS does not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned in this presentation.
In no event shall the DHS, Battelle National Biodefense Institute, or National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center have any responsibility or liability for any use, misuse, inability to use, or reliance upon the information contained herein.
In addition, no warranty of fitness for a particular purpose, merchantability, accuracy, or adequacy is provided regarding the contents of this document. Financial support. Potential conflicts of interest. All authors: No reported conflicts of interest. Conflicts that the editors consider relevant to the content of the manuscript have been disclosed. Google Scholar. Aerosol and surface distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in hospital wards, Wuhan, China, [published online ahead of print 10 April ].
Emerg Infect Dis doi: Air, surface environmental, and personal protective equipment contamination by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 SARS-CoV-2 from a symptomatic patient [published online ahead of print 4 March ]. JAMA doi: N Engl J Med ; : — 7. Lancet Microbe ; 1 : E Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites. Appl Environ Microbiol ; 60 : — Effect of simulated solar radiation and sodium fluorescein on the recovery of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus from aerosols.
Appl Microbiol ; 21 : — Effects of air temperature and relative humidity on coronavirus survival on surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol ; 76 : — 7. The effects of temperature and relative humidity on the viability of the SARS coronavirus. Adv Virol ; : Characterization of UVC light sensitivity of vaccinia virus. Appl Environ Microbiol ; 73 : — 6.
Effect of relative humidity and air temperature on survival of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol ; 57 : — 9. Spearman C. Br J Psychol — ; 2 : — Beitrag zur kollektiven Behandlung pharmakologischer Reihenversuche [in German]. Archiv Exp Pathol Pharmakol ; : — 3. The influence of simulated sunlight on the inactivation of influenza virus in aerosols. J Infect Dis ; : — 8. National Center for Atmospheric Research. Tropospheric ultraviolet and visible TUV radiation model.
Accessed 20 May J Virol Methods ; : 85 — Method for contamination of filtering facepiece respirators by deposition of MS2 viral aerosols. J Aerosol Sci ; 41 : — Survival of airborne MS2 bacteriophage generated from human saliva, artificial saliva, and cell culture medium. Appl Environ Microbiol ; 80 : — Stability and inactivation of SARS coronavirus. Med Microbiol Immunol ; : 1 — 6. Cough aerosol in healthy participants: fundamental knowledge to optimize droplet-spread infectious respiratory disease management.
BMC Pulm Med ; 12 : As per his daughter-in-law, Donna Grant-Bell, he also had an internal medicine practice in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn. Bell died in at the age of His daughter-in-law notes that his widow, Mae Bell, lives in Crown Heights, Brooklyn and, in , is 98 years old. Section 51, lot A Brooklyn native, the census reports that he lived in the home of his uncle and aunt on Neptune Avenue, along with his four cousins, his parents, his three older siblings, and a boarder.
Both of his parents were Russian immigrants; his father was a civil engineer. By , when Felix was in his first year of college, his family had moved into their own place, still on Neptune Avenue, along with his grandmother. Felix married Natalie E. Guttelman in February, The couple was married for 57 years. His obituary, written by his family, notes that he loved to travel. Section 61, lot , grave Private first class, United States Army.
According to the New York State census, Walter Bongiorno was born in Brooklyn, as were his younger brother and sister.
Both his parents were born in Italy; his father was a bricklayer and his mother a dressmaker. By , year-old Walter was working, possibly in dress manufacturing, and living with his family on East 6 th Street. That census report states that he had completed the 7th grade in school.
Just before his 23rd birthday, Bongiorno registered for the draft, listing his employer as Andrew Asaro of Brooklyn. During the war, Bongiorno served in a field artillery unit, first in Africa and then in central Europe. He was hospitalized, probably for frostbite, in January , and then returned to duty.
He was discharged from service in October , and married Lillie Sciarabba three weeks later. Arbor, lot , grave His father died in Stephen was educated in the Brooklyn public schools through high school. He was listed among the graduates of P. As per the census, he was single, lived with his mother, sister and brother at 61 st Street in Brooklyn, had completed high school and was employed. On his draft registration card, filed in October , he recorded that he lived with his mother at 61 st Street in Brooklyn and they had a home telephone; he listed his mother, Frances Bono, as his next of kin.
His son-in-law also indicates that Bono delivered business machines for 45 years. An interesting fact is that Bono was aboard the Andrea Doria , sailing from Genoa, Italy, and arriving in New York City on July 25, , a year before that vessel sunk in a tragic accident.
The family moved from Brooklyn to Eltingville, Staten Island, in Section , lot lot , grave 3. Brennan was born in Ripon, California. His older brother, John Edgin Brennan, was born in Colorado. In the census, the family lived in Walnut Creek, near Berkeley; his father, who was born in Minnesota, is listed as a herdsman, employed at University Farms.
When he registered for the draft later that year, on his 22nd birthday, he was living at home and listed the University as his employer. His World War II Army enlistment record notes that he enlisted as a private on September 22, , and left the service on December 6, He served with the Quartermaster Corps in England and in France.
Helen Cleary Brennan, his widow, reports that he was promoted to battalion sergeant major and then second lieutenant. Brennan notes that he was in the United States from September through July , England from July 8, through October , and France from October through December As per his obituary in The New York Times , he was a master sergeant while in England and a second lieutenant during his service in France.
He participated in the Battle of the Bulge. Brennan, while stationed in France, sent the following letter to his parents in Oakland, California, on May 4, , four days before V-E Day. The original language is used, paragraphs added for ease in reading:. By the time this reaches you V-E day may have come and gone. I Hope So! It seems strange that less than a year ago we were in England working hard for that day when we would be able to obtain even a fingerhold on the continent.
It seems sort of strange too, to find myself more concerned with a place called San Francisco than I have ever been before. As usual the men are primarily concerned about what is going to happen to them. First in terms of the immediate military situation—going home, staying here, going to the pacific, i. We have begun to discuss the so-called GI Bill of Rights. They work well as a team and get things done. Most of them have only been overseas about 9 months but all agree that they took America for granted in a great many ways.
They are still more concerned about local politics than the national or international scene, but there is a gradual change. We were waiting in line the other night for the GI show in town—in front were several American officers and just behind us were several English officers, The Yanks were talking about social issues at home and the Limeys were knocking themselves out over world affairs.
To me this is the essential difference between American and English thought. But I would stake my last franc on our boys when it comes to getting things done. They have a radio in the day room and in less time than it takes to write this, they have run wires into half-dozen bedrooms and created small amplifying sets out of old parts picked here and there.
One of the boys ran a wire from the radio out the window and down the hill to the supply room about 25 yards away, connected it with a French phone so that you can now hear the program there as well. I believe they work harder than any other army in this world and play harder too. Of course they probably live longer if you want to think of it in that light. You would be amazed at what a group of men will do to a French Chateau to make it comfortable.
There is no hot water so they create it. The place is drafty so they run a good-old American pot-bellied stove into every room and fix the windows.
These men can make anything over here. They understand the French only to the point that it serves their purposes. If there is a dozen eggs, some bread and a couple of bottles of Champagne needed for a midnight snack someone will get it.
When they find a Frenchman who treats them square and fair they fall all over themselves to do things for him. They are rough, crude, sentimental, generous and a sucker for anything. When in town they look more like a construction gang of engineers than a company of soldiers. I think this is one of the main reasons we are here instead of still back in England. His first marriage was to Inez in ; they divorced in ; Inez and Leonard had two children, Kim, who died of leukemia at age five in the s, and Heidi.
He worked as an administrator in the Oakland, California, and U. Virgin Islands Departments of Education, and then as a professor of Education at Brooklyn College for ten years, retiring in He married Helen Cleary, an alumna of Brooklyn College, class of , in Maine, on May 21, ; the couple was together as of The couple lived in Brooklyn Heights at 6 Montague Terrace. Len was the exemplar of the gentle man, kind, caring, witty but never harsh. Niche, Tranquility Garden, FOa.
Budgell was born in Brooklyn. As per the census, he lived in Brooklyn with his Canadian-born and French-speaking parents and sister, who was born in New York; his father was an ironworker who settled in the United States in The census states that he lived in Brooklyn with his parents and siblings. As per his daughter, Debra Healy, he served in Japan. Apparently, he served after the war ended during the Japanese Occupation. As per enlistment records, he enlisted as a private on at New York City on October 17, That document indicates that he was white, single and had completed two years of high school.
That enlistment was also announced in the Brooklyn Citizen on October 22, He married Gertrude Kelly on August 5, , and had nine children. He was a union ironworker in locals 40 and ; he retired from the latter local after 45 years. Budgell was survived by his wife, children, fifteen grandchildren, two great-grandchildren, a brother and a sister.
Susan noted that her father loved looking at his beloved New York City from atop its towers, where he worked on restorations as a union ironworker.
She recalled that her father helped build the hangars at LaGuardia Airport, the Unisphere and Shea Stadium in Flushing and the Sheraton Hotel in Manhattan, among other edifices and bridges. He never went to college, but he read library books about war, history, science.
Especially astronomy. He set up a telescope on the roof and loved looking at the stars. Maybe because he spent so much time working up in the sky. His younger brother died from a fall from a high iron job in and a grandson, Fred III, was murdered outside a bar in Park Slope in Budgell died from colon cancer, and after learning of his illness, bought a plot at Green-Wood, his own tombstone, and made his children promise to get colonoscopies—a procedure that would have saved his life.
Lieutenant commander, United States Navy. Born in Michigan, the census reports that he resided with his parents, Walter and Cecilia, and his younger brother, Thomas G. His father was born in New York and his mother was born and baptized in Canada. William Budington attended Columbia University and was a member of its track and field as well as touch football teams from to He was a major asset, and his accomplishments were reported numerous times in the Columbia Daily Spectator.
Articles that cited his athleticism were published on March 5, shot put , April 26, javelin throw , May 15, weight-throwing , November 8 and 26, touch football and, November 11, discus throw. The June 5, issue reports that he was awarded a varsity insignia. The federal census records him as twenty-five years of age, single, an intern, and living at the United States Marine Hospital in Norfolk City, Virginia.
On May 20, , he was nominated as an assistant surgeon in the U. Public Health Service. His nomination was endorsed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, is recorded in the Senate Congressional Record, and was confirmed by the Senate on June 26, The House Congressional Record states that he was confirmed as a temporary surgeon, effective August 1, There are no records for his enlistment into the Navy.
Coast Guard in the mid-ocean escort group. In , he attended the U. He was the doctor in charge of two floors, one of which was veterans with STDs. After receiving a shipment of penicillin and administering it to all on the floor, the floor was empty in two days! According to an unspecified record for Ernest G. His California voter registration card records that he lived at S. Wilton Pl. He is listed in the and California Physicians Directory , as well as the , , , and Directory of Aviation Medical Examiners.
Budington graduated from Weill Cornell Medical College in The couple had no children. He is buried with his parents and grandparents. Buono was born in Brooklyn. The census notes that his father, who owned a drugstore, and mother, a housewife, were both born in New York. All four grandparents were born in Italy. Anthony lived then with his parents and younger sister, Emily, at Carroll Street in Brooklyn.
Soon after, by April of , he had enlisted in the Marines, according to the muster roll at Parris Island, South Carolina, the site of the Marine Corps boot camp. He then spent the rest of and at least until July in Guam, in the Mariana Islands.
Guam then became a base for Allied operations; five airfields were built there to serve the B bombers attacking targets in the Western Pacific and on mainland Japan. Buono returned to Brooklyn after his discharge for what became a lifetime of interesting occupations. According to his grandson Robert Nash, he worked as a chef at the Hotel St. Some of his crime-fighting exploits, including a high-speed car chase, were noted in news reports of the time. According to his grandson, he became a licensed dietician, owned and managed Brooklyn rental real estate as well as a fruit store and a dress factory, and bought and sold stocks, antiques and coins.
He also was an avid pigeon flyer. Buono married Eleanor Joan Santillo, who died in , and is buried alongside her husband and in-laws. To this day, in and around the area where he raised his children, 80th Street and 13th Avenue , you could ask the old timers about him and I guarantee you, if they knew him, they have fond memories of my grandfather. He was loved by all, showed his love through generosity, was understanding, strong, wise, and was an amazing man. His father immigrated from Palermo, Italy, on the vessel Perugia and arrived at Ellis Island in His mother, also from Palermo, immigrated in The couple had nine children.
He and three siblings, Grace, Angelina, and Mario were born in Brooklyn. The census reports that his father was a longshoreman. His daughter relates that Cammareri attended P. This establishment remained in the family for three generations and became world renowned when it was featured in the movie, Moonstruck.
As per the census, the family lived on Sackett Street. Cammareri, then twenty-one years old, worked as a chauffeur for his father and a baker for the family business. He was the best man for his brother, Joseph, as cited in the wedding announcements in the November 4, , issue of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle.
His military record, dated August 11, , erroneously documents his birthplace as Hawaii. His World War II draft card reveals that he was 21 years old, lived at Henry Street, and listed his father as his contact person. As per his daughter, he served under General George S. After the war, Cammareri took over the family bakery business. Records show that he married Catherine Brasco on June 17, The couple had three children, Maria, Nicholas, and Anthony.
His obituary was published in the Daily News. Section 88, lot , section E. Caruso was born in New York City. The census reports that he lived in Brooklyn with his parents, who were both naturalized citizens of Italian birth, and an older sister and younger brother. His father was in the egg business. The family owned their home at 90 Bay 14 th Street. His draft registration card states that Caruso lived at the Bay 14 th Street address, had no home telephone, and worked for the Electromatic Radio Distributors Corporation at 88 University Place in Manhattan; he listed his father as his emergency contact.
His unit was at Guadalcanal from December 17, through February 5, ; the Battle of Guadalcanal, which resulted in an Allied victory, took place from August 7, through February 9, Medical units removed evacuees to aid stations, prepared evacuees for further evacuations, and transported evacuees to medical facilities behind the front lines, known officially as Division Clearing Stations. In September , Caruso was admitted to the hospital and was discharged as a disabled veteran in January That hospital record indicates that Caruso had been in service for one year.
His son reports that he contracted malaria twice while on duty in the Pacific. In May , he married Angela Ann M.
Bruno; the couple had one son. Their marriage record lists May 3 but their son states that their anniversary was celebrated on May In civilian life, he was in the furniture business. Ann Caruso died in and is interred with her husband. Section 69, lot , grave Chiappone was born in New York City.
As per the New York State census, he lived in Manhattan with his Italian-born parents, as well as his brother, sister and Italian-born father-in-law; his father was a peddler and his mother was a homemaker. The census reports that he lived in Brooklyn with his parents, three sisters and his brother; his father was a fruit peddler. According to his draft registration card, filed in , which spells his name as Phillip, although he signed his name to it as Philip, he lived at 15 th Avenue in Brooklyn and worked at the Brooklyn Navy Yard; he named his mother, Josephine, as his emergency contact.
His daughter reports that he was in the Army Air Force stationed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where he trained forces there. The naval airbase in Brazil was the busiest air transport base in the world. About 25, troops joined the FEB which fought with the Allies in the Mediterranean; about 1, lost their lives. Chiappone did not participate in any battles of World War II and achieved the rank of corporal. On May 11, , he married Mary Carolina La Carrubba; the couple had three children; one son predeceased him in and is interred with his parents.
In civilian life, he worked for the Fire Department, capacity unknown. Bernadette Roman Catholic Church in Brooklyn.
He was survived by his wife, one son, his daughters and six grandchildren. Warrant electrician, United States Navy. His parents, John A. He was the fourth generation of Clirehughs in America. According to the census, he lived with his parents and grandmother in Hillside, New Jersey. His father worked in a refinery. The census indicates that Clirehugh was living with his mother, father, and sister in East Windsor, New Jersey.
As per a memorial detailed in Find a Grave , Clirehugh attended primary, grammar, and high school in Hightstown, New Jersey. The memorial also states he had an interest in electronics at a young age and he attended a diesel engine school upon graduating from high school.
During an interview on November 15, , for the Veterans History Project , Clirehurgh relates that he enlisted in the Navy in in response to a Navy poster he saw while in New York City. His tours of duty included Honolulu and the western coast of Australia. He was stationed in Pearl Harbor on December 7, , and was on board the docked Tautog when the Japanese planes attacked. He remained below decks and passed ammunition to the sailors manning the machine gun. The Tautog crew is credited for shooting down at least one Japanese war plane.
Upon retiring from active duty, he attended the University of Pennsylvania where he studied electrical engineering. His civilian occupations included working for Philco to set up a microwave communication system in France.
There was no radar, no air patrol that morning. A scout plane would have seen an entire Japanese fleet. The minute interview is available on its website. His wife, Doris Roesener Clirehugh, predeceased him in Section 15, lot Marks Avenues in Brooklyn. The census records that he still resided at the St. According to the census, he resided at 13 th Avenue, Brooklyn, with his mother, Maria, and three younger siblings, Vincent, Frank and Rose; his father, Frank, is not listed as a household member.
He married Lucy Cianflone on February 17, His employer at that time was Harry Seldin and his place of employment was at 61 st Street. His World War II Army enlistment record states that he enlisted on September 9, , and his rank was private; the Department of Veteran Affairs records his enlistment date as September 1, His civil occupation included laundering, cleaning, dyeing and pressing apparel.
He was discharged on September 1, According to his daughter, he served in the Army Air Force. He and his wife passed away within seven months of each other in A widower, he was survived by two daughters, Marie and Barbara.
According to the New York birth index, Congiusta was born in Brooklyn. As per the census, he lived with his older brother, Alfred, older sister, Mary, and younger brother, Pasquale. The sixteen-year-old Alfred is listed as head of the household, and his occupation as shipping clerk in the lighting industry.
The census states that his father and mother, Joseph and Jennie, immigrated from Calabria, Italy. Sixteen-year-old Anthony, his twenty-eight-year-old brother, Leonard, and his fourteen-year-old brother Patsy Pasquale are also listed in the household. The family resided at 64 th Street and his father and older brother co-owned a poultry market. His World War II draft card notes that his registration date was December 14, , he was 18 years old, and his father was named as next of kin.
As per his World War II enlistment record, he enlisted on March 20, , had completed four years of high school, and entered service as a private. His military specialty was radio operator, low speed. On May 29, , Conguista obtained a marriage license; his spouse was Anna R. However, his son shared that the couple married on July 4, The couple had three children. According to his son, Anthony worked for the Dole Food Company for forty-two years. In , his residence was 64 th Street, Brooklyn.
He died at the age of ninety-one. Section P, lot , grave 2. Born in Brooklyn, the census records that he was living with his parents, Alfonse and Mary Cuccurullo, and his five younger siblings at 84 16 th Street, Brooklyn. It notes that he had a scar on his right side. His draft registration card chronicles that he was 19 years old, lived on 16 th Street in Brooklyn, and worked for Decorative Metal Co.
Historical data describe that the th Regiment was activated in and participated in battles during World War I. The regiment was part of the 82 nd Division. The soldiers in this regiment arrived at battles by gliders. On June 7, , the Regiment participated in the invasion of Normandy, France. The soldiers in this unit were awarded the red and green braided French Fourragere, a cord of honor for their service, to be worn on their uniforms. According to his World War II hospital admission card, Cuccurullo was admitted to the hospital in June , but his reason for admission and release date are unknown.
The th landed among German positions that had surrounded other elements of the 82 nd Airborne Division. The Regiment earned the Distinguished Unit Citation for that attack. The fight continued into January with heavy casualties. This famous attack would be named the Battle of the Bulge.
After the war, in May, , the 82 nd Airborne Division was assigned to Berlin. They had two children. Section Rose, lot , grave Coxswain, United States Navy. His mother, Kunegunda, born in Poland, immigrated to the United States in , and was a speeder tender in a cotton mill. The census records his mother as head of household. He had completed four years of high school and was a bobbin boy in a cotton mill.
The draft card names his mother as the next of kin. On some occasions, we earn revenue if you click the links and buy the products, but we never allow this to bias our coverage. The reviews are compiled through a mix of expert opinion and real-world testing. Want to bookmark your favourite articles and stories to read or reference later?
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